Shining Stone A HISTORY OF LITHOPHANES FROM THE 18TH TO THE 20TH CENTURY KH. W. STECKELINGS
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3 –→ Table of Contents A HISTORY OF LITHOPHANES FROM THE 18TH TO THE 20TH CENTURY Shining Stone KH.W. STECKELINGS HETJENS-MUSEUM · SANDSTEIN VERLAG
6 5 Foreword 11 Introduction 15 The Development of the Light Screen 18 The History of Porcelain 22 A History of Porcelain Lithophanes 28 The Production of Porcelain Lithophanes 41 Types and Uses of Lithophanes 47 The World of Lithophane Motifs 58 Lithophanes in Literature German Manufacturers 60 Staatliche Porzellan-Manufaktur Meissen GmbH / Meissen (Königliche Porcellain Fabrique) 81 Porzellanmanufaktur Fürstenberg GmbH / Fürstenberg (Herzoglich Braunschweigische Porcellain-Fabrique) 83 Staatliche Porzellan-Manufaktur Nymphenburg A. Bäuml GmbH & Co. KG / Munich (Königlich Bayerische PorzellanManufaktur Nymphenburg) 88 Aelteste Volkstedter Porzellanmanufaktur / Rudolstadt-Volkstedt (Triebner, Ens & Eckert) 94 KPM Königliche Porzellanmanufaktur Berlin GmbH / Berlin (Königliche Porzellanmanu- factur Berlin) (Porzellanfabrik Wegely and Porzellanmanufactur Gotzkowsky) 116 Porzellan Manufaktur Lichte-Wallendorf GmbH / Lichte-Wallendorf (Heubach, Kaempfe & Sontag) 118 Königlich privilegierte Porzellanfabrik Tettau GmbH / Tettau (Sontag & Söhne GmbH) 120 Porzellanfabrik C. M. Hutschenreuther / Hohenberg (BHS tabletop AG) 125 Porzellanmanufactur Plaue / Rudolstadt-Volkstedt (C. G. Schierholz & Sohn / Plaue) 152 The Porzellanmanufactur Schierholz Plaue and Its Links to France (“The Sickle Mark” / “Pfennig Mark” / “Lithophanie Française”) 164 Gebr. Schoenau, Swaine & Co. GmbH / Hüttensteinach (Porzellanfabrik Gebrüder Schoenau) 168 Buckauer Porzellanmanufaktur / Buckau 170 Porzellanfabrik Carl Heyroth & Co. / Magdeburg-Sudenburg (Porzellanmalerei Carl Heyroth / Magdeburg-Altstadt) 176 Neue Berliner Porzellanmanufactur G. M. Ebers / Berlin (Thon-Waren- und ChamottsteinFabrik G. M. Ebers) 178 Porzellan-Manufactur F. A. Schumann / Moabit near Berlin 180 Porzellanmanufaktur ScheibeAlsbach / Rudolstadt-Volkstedt (Porzellanmanufaktur A. W. Fr. Kister / Scheibe) 182 Porzellanfabrik Carl Auvera / Arzberg (C. M. Hutschenreuther AG, Abteilung Arzberg) 183 Ernst Georg Zimmermann (Eisenkunstgiesserei) / Hanau 185 Sitzendorfer Porzellanmanufaktur KG / Sitzendorf (Alfred Voigt KG) 188 Puppenfabrik Ernst Dressel / Sonneberg (Cuno & Otto Dressel) 190 Striegauer Porzellan-Manufaktur C. Walter & Co. / Stanowitz 192 Rheinische Porzellan- Manufactur Oscar Erk / (Düsseldorf-)Oberkassel 193 Unterweissbacher Werkstätten für Porzellankunst / RudolstadtVolkstedt (Porzellanfabrik Unterweissbach Mann & Porzelius / Unterweißbach) 196 “Aerozon” Fabrik G. & B. Sternberg / Berlin (Feese Leuchten GmbH / Dahlewitz) 199 Neue Porzellanfabrik Tettau e.G.m.b.H / Tettau (Neue Porzellanfabrik Tettau Gerold & Co.) Porcelain Lithophane Manufacturers Contents
7 201 Rudolf Kämmer Porzellanmanufaktur / Rudolstadt-Volkstedt (Luxus-Porzellanfabrik Müller & Co. / Volkstedt-Schwarza) 204 Lindner Porzellanfabrik KG / Küps (Küpser Porzellan-Manufaktur KPM) Manufacturers in France and Belgium (with Supplementary Notes on the Netherlands) 206 Baron Paul Charles Amable de Bourgoing, Alexis Sylvain du Tremblay, and Lithophane Production in France 207 AdT & Cie – Manufacture á Montreuil-Sous-Bois / Seine-Saint-Denis 220 M. Utzschneider & Cie / Sarreguemines (Sarreguemines Batiment) 222 Darte Frères / Paris 224 Meyze / Limoges 225 Jean Louis Coquet / Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat 226 Ruaud / Limoges 228 Jacob Petit / Belleville (Raingo et Vialatte / Basses-Loges) 231 La Porcelaine Limousine S. A. / Limoges (Gibus & Redon) 233 Haviland & Cie / Limoges 235 Bernardaud / Limoges (Guerry et Délinières) 238 Barjaud de Lafond / Limoges (Bétoule, Legrand & Cie) 239 Charles Ahrenfeldt / Limoges 240 Paroutaud Vve. & Fils / Limoges (S. A. Porcelaines Lafarge & Cie) (Philippe Deshoulières) 242 Porcelaines Chateau / Limoges (Limoges-Castel) 243 Philippe Deshoulières / Foëcy 244 Atelier Paul-Ferdinand Cauris / Paris 245 Société Belge de Céramique “Cerabel” / Baudour (Declercq et de Fuisseaux) (Manufacture de Porcelaine de Baudour) 246 S. A. Belge de Céramique / Mons and Bergen (Les Grands Pilastres) 247 Manufactures Pêtre & Cie / Baudour 248 Herrmann et Laurent / Quaregnon (Robert G. Manigler et Cie / Brassac) 252 Supplementary Notes on the Netherlands (Holland) Manufacturers in Austria and Hungary 254 Wiener Porzellanmanufactur / Vienna (K. K. Aerarial Porzellan- Manufactur Wien) (Neue Wiener Porzellanmanufaktur Augarten GmbH & Co. KG) 264 Atelier “Zb” Wien / Vienna 266 Porzellan-Manufaktur Herend AG / Herend (Kaiserlich Königlich privilegierte Porzellanfabrik Herend) (Herender Porzellanmanufactur Mór Fischer) Bohemian Manufacturers 274 Supplementary Notes on the History of Bohemian Porcelain 275 Haas & Czjzek GmbH / Schlaggenwald (Lippert & Haas) (Porzellanfabrik Schlaggenwald) 285 Porzellanfabrik Klösterle / Klösterle (Gräflich von Thun’sche Porzellanfabrik Klösterle) (Karlovarský Porcelán) 289 Porzellanfabrik Pirkenhammer / Pirkenhammer (Fischer & Reichenbach / Fischer & Mieg) (Artporcel GmbH) 292 Haas & Czjzek GmbH / Unterchodau (Portheim’sche Porzellanfabrik Chodau) (Hüttner & Dietl) (Steingutfabrik Chodau) 294 Gebrüder Haidinger, K. K. Priv. Porzellanfabrik in Elbogen / Elbogen (Porzellanfabrik Springer & Co.) 296 Porzellanfabrik Robert Persch / Mildeneichen (Porzellanfabriken zu Mildeneichen und Raspenau J. F. Scholz / Haindorf) 298 Porzellanfabrik Concordia, Gebr. Löw & Co. / Lessau (K. K. Landesbefugte Porzellanfabrik Lessau) Manufacturers in the United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland) 300 Baron Paul Charles Amable de Bourgoing and Lithophane Production in the United Kingdom 301 Wedgwood / Burslem – Etruria – Barlaston 308 Josiah Spode / Stoke-on-Trent (Copeland & Garrett) (Royal Worcester & Spode) 310 Chamberlain Company / Worcester (Worcester Royal Porcelain Co.) 312 Thomas Minton / Stoke-on-Trent 315 Coalport China Ltd. / Coalport (John Rose & Co.) 316 Grainger Factory / Worcester (Worcester Royal Porcelain Co.) 319 Wade Ceramics Ltd. / Burslem (Wade & Colclough) 320 J. Macintyre & Co. / Burslem (Kennedy Porcelain Manufactory)
8 321 Moore Brothers / Longton (Hamilton & Moore) 322 Clarke’s Pyramid and Fairy Light Company Ltd. / London (Clarke’s Candle Company) 324 Hulse, Nixon & Adderley / Longton (Adderley & Lawson) (Ridgway Potteries Ltd.) 326 William Henry Goss / Stoke-on-Trent 333 Thomas Forester / Longton 334 John Marshall & Co. / Bo’ness (The Bo’ness Pottery) 335 South Wales Pottery / Llanelly 340 Belleek Pottery Ltd. / Belleek Russian Manufacturers 348 Imperial Porcelain Factory St. Petersburg / St. Petersburg (Lomonosov Porcelain Factory) 352 Popov Porcelain Factory / Gorbunovo Scandinavian Manufacturers 356 Rörstrands Porslinsfabriker Ab / Lidköping 358 Kongelige Danske Porcelains Fabrik / Copenhagen (Royal Copenhagen A/S) (Royal Scandinavia A/S) 360 Porsgrund Porselaensfabrik AS / Porsgrunn Other European Manufacturers 364 Societa Ceramica Richard-Ginori / Doccia (Manifattura Ginori di Doccia) 368 Fábrica de Porcelana da Vista Alegre / Aveiro Manufacturers in the United States of America 377 Griffen, Smith & Co. / Phoenixville (Phoenix Pottery, Kaolin and Fire Brick Company) 380 Dr. Edmond Beroud / Miami 382 Alpha Gene Blue / Tempe 383 Jefferson Art Studio Inc. / Ann Arbor (Jefferson Art Lighting Co.) 384 The Porcelain Garden Inc. / Irvine 385 David Failing / St. Johnsville Asian Manufacturers 389 Peaktop Ltd. / Hong Kong 390 Japanese Manufacturers Unidentified Objects, Markings, and Manufacturers 396 The F.G.ct.C0: S mark 396 The Gotha mark 397 The IPM – ITS – JTS marks 398 The PD mark 399 The Caty Puller mark 399 French Manufacturers 400 Other Unidentified Manufactory Initials 402 Photo Lithophanes 404 Paper Lithophanes 404 Papyrophany 407 Papyrography 407 Glass Lithophanes 408 Carl Anton Günther 408 Ernst Simon 408 Eduard Pelikan 409 Monogrammist H. J. 409 Karl Pfohl 411 Franz de Paula Johann Vinzent Zach 411 Ludwig Schmitzberger 413 Eduard Schmitzberger 413 Otto Pietsch Sr. 415 Origin unknown Lithophanes in Other Materials 416 Wax 416 Alabaster 417 Jade 417 Amber 417 Ivory, Bone, and Similar Materials 419 Egg Shells 419 Seashells 421 Soap 421 White Chocolate 421 Plastics Porcelain Lithophane Manufacturers Special Types of Lithophanes
9 425 Poterie de Rubelles / Rubelles (J. Hocédé & Cie) 427 Villeroy & Boch AG / Mettlach 429 Wedgwood / Burslem – Etruria – Barlaston 430 Faiencerie de Sarreguemines / Saargemünd (Utzschneider & Co.) 430 Minton, Hollins & Co. / Stoke-on-Trent (Thomas Minton) 431 Faiencerie de Choisy / Choisy-le-Roi 432 Faiencerie de Gien / Gien 432 Carter & Co. / Poole 433 American Encaustic Tiling Company / Zanesville 435 Adams & Cartlidge Ltd. / Hanley 439 Fürstlich Anhaltische Eisenhütte unterm Maegdesprung / Harzgerode-Mägdesprung 442 Gräflich Einsiedelsches Eisenwerk Lauchhammer / Mückenberg 443 Königliche Eisengiesserey zu Saynerhütte / Sayn 444 Königliche Eisengiesserei bei Gleiwitz / Gleiwitz 446 Königlich Preussische Eisen- giesserei zu Berlin / Berlin 448 Siméon Pierre Devaranne / Berlin 449 Metallwarenfabrik Carl Deffner / Esslingen 451 Alfred Richard Seebass / Berlin and Hanau 455 Eisengiesserei August Ferdinand Lehmann / Berlin 456 k. k. Landesprivilegierte Bronce- & Eisengiesserey Joseph Glanz / Vienna 458 Fabrik für feinen Eisenguss und eiserne Kunstsachen E. G. Zimmermann / Hanau 463 Kunst-Eisen- und Zink-Giesserei von Albert Anton Meves / Berlin 463 Day / London 464 WMF Württembergische Metallwarenfabrik AG / Geislingen (Metall-Waaren-Fabrik Straub & Schweizer) 466 Mitchell Vance Company / New York 467 E. P. Gleason Glass Factory / Brooklyn (Gleason-Tiebout Glass Company) 470 Eisengiesserei F. L. Vombach / Offenbach 476 Notes 484 Bibliography 491 Index of Persons 495 Glossary 500 Price Lists 552 A Selection of Marks and Symbols Used on Porcelain Lithophanes 562 Acknowledgements 564 Imprint Lithoponie (Émail Ombrant, Émail de Rubelles) Table-Screen Stands and Related Objects Appendix Abbreviation FE first edition All motif titles in italics are from the official company price lists.
–→ Table of Contents 10 Fig. 1 Lithophanie in Kathedralglasrahmung KPM 268 “L’Algerienne” Platte ca. 27,2 × 36,0 cm · EA 1842 –→ Object description p. 10
Introduction 11 –→ Table of Contents This book focuses primarily on the porcelain lithophane: a work of art molded in intaglio with photorealistic quality when backlit. It is often compared with the effect of an image created using the chiaroscuro technique. Lithophanes have been produced from biscuit porcelain since the first half of the 19th century. Later, manufacturers began using other translucent materials as well, such as glass, paper, ivory, horn, wax, soap, and plastic. Lithophanes followed in the tradition of earlier light-shielding products, which had primarily been made from opaque materials. As diaphanous, visual media, lithophanes can be categorized as “transparencies,” which also played a role in the prehistory of photography and film. The neologism “lithophane” was derived from ancient Greek. It is a combination of the noun lithos meaning “stone” and the infinitive phainein meaning “to shine” or “to (cause to) appear” and can be freely translated as “shining stone.” Other terms that have been used to describe this art form include porcelain transparency, bisque picture, Parian picture, translucent embossment, and, in reference to the products exported by the Königliche Porzellan-Manufaktur Berlin (KPM), Berlin transparency and Berlin night screen. They are also sometimes referred to incorrectly as “lithopanes.” The German translation for lithophane is Lithophanie, but several other terms can be found in German literature, including Porzellanlichtbild, Porzellantransparenz, Lichtschirmbild, Biskuitreliefbild, Porzellandiaphanie, and Photophanie. Other countries use similar terminology: in France, they are referred to as lithophanies, in Belgium and the Netherlands as lithophanie, transparentjes, or dia in biscuit, in Denmark as lithofanier or diafanplader, in Italy as litofanie, in Norway and Sweden as litofanier, in Portugal and Spain as litofanias, and in Hungary as litofánok. The Russian term can be translated literally as “biscuit light screen.” The first use of the term “lithophane” in any form was in the French patent granted on January 12, 1827, to the Frenchman who has been incorrectly credited with the invention of lithophanes, Paul Charles Amable de Bourgoing (1791–1864). We can therefore infer that Bourgoing was the inventor of this term. In the German-speaking world, lithophane products were initially sold under other names: the Königliche PorzellanManufaktur Berlin called them porzellane transparente Lichtschirmplatten (porcelain transparent light-screen plaques), the Porzellan Manufaktur Nymphenburg sold them as Lichtbilder (light pictures), and the Porzellanmanufactur Schierholz Plaue in Thuringia referred to them as transparente Lichtschirme (transparent light screens). The only German company that used the term Lithophanie—or lithophanische Lichtschirmplatten (lithophanic light-screen plaques)—from the very beginning was the Meissen manufactory in Saxony. The most likely explanation for Meissen’s use of the French term is that the company had had access to early French price lists and sample plaques. In some English and French publications, the terms “intaglio” and “socalled lithophanes” are used in reference to lithophanes that were not produced using the highly sophisticated and artistically demanding waxmodel process. In this case, the image is introduced directly to the plaster mold, sometimes using a model. However, the production method is not of primary importance. Bourgoing was already using a simplified technique that differed from the KPM process. In his first patent, he described an additional step involving cutout figures, which he pressed into the wax, and “the use of a great number of different materials.” The frequently cited argument that the term “lithophane” should only be used in reference to porcelain castings created from an original wax model is neither accurate nor substantiated by the text of Bourgoing’s patent. Therefore, this book also deals with lithophanes made from other materials, as well as related lithophanic objects and so-called “pseudo-lithophanes.” Glass lithophanes, which were also produced in the 19th century, are relatively rare. Here, the image is engraved by hand at varying depths into one or more layers (overlays) of colored glass. The German term for this technique is Lithophanieschnitt (lithophane engraving). Monochrome, deep-cut, or pressed glass works, on the other hand, are not considered lithophanes. The first paper lithophanes appeared on the market around the mid19th century. This term can refer to paper transparencies made using one of two different techniques: papyrophany or papyrography. In papyrophany, a relief image of varying thicknesses is embossed in papier-mâché. With papyrography, the image is formed by layering translucent paper cutouts. Lithoponie, a “further development of the lithophane,” is based on historical production processes. It is also known as émail ombrant, émail de Rubelles or faience de Rubelles after the place where it was first proIntroduction Fig. 1 Lithophane framed in stained glass · KPM 268 L’Algerienne · plaque c. 27.2×36.0 cm (10 3⁄4 × 14 1⁄8 in.) · FE 1842 (Collection “S” Wuppertal) –→ Object description p. 106
–→ Table of Contents 12 Introduction duced. This technique was patented by Bourgoing and his partner Alexis Sylvain du Tremblay (1796–1868) as a “distinct form of ceramic art.” Unlike lithophanes, émaux ombrants are opaque products, which means they have no translucent character. The term Lithoponie is a combination of the Greek noun lithos meaning “stone” and the Latin verb ponere meaning “to place” or “to put (on)” in reference to the production process, which involves the application of a glaze. This book aims to provide an extensive exploration of the production and history of lithophanes, incorporating the latest findings on this subject. One important objective is to correct the misinformation that has been circulating for decades. Furthermore, it is hoped that the information provided here will stimulate and facilitate further research in this area. Due to the complex factual situation, this book makes no claim to be comprehensive. The author also refrains from art-historical interpretation, which would require a different approach. Seldom has an art form received so little attention as the lithophane. In the standard literature on porcelain, it is generally mentioned only briefly, or not at all. As a result, only very little information is available for the interested enthusiast and even the porcelain expert. The following publications have been particularly valuable in the research for this book: contributions by the authors Georg Lenz, Laurel G. Blair, Rüdiger van Dick, Robert A. Elder, Joachim Kunze, Hans Leichter, and Hans Simmler, the master’s thesis of Karola Rattner(-Krauss), the thesis and subsequent dissertation of Kirsten D. Rather-Pliquet, and the dissertation of Bärbel Kovalevski.2 In addition, the author conducted an extensive review of the international literature on porcelain, as well as relevant documents, certificates, patent specifications, price lists, process files, etc. Information was also collected from the manufacturers who are still in business and from museums. In this research, it became clear that very few detailed records on the production of lithophanes have survived. A great deal of knowledge has been lost through carelessness, theft, frequent factory fires, and wars. Furthermore, some facts were only shared by word of mouth and have therefore passed into oblivion over the years. Fig. 2 Lithophane Meissen 28 Gothisches Gebäude in Mondschein (Gothic Building in Moonlight) · 16.0×11.9 cm (6 5⁄16 × 4 11⁄16 in.) · FE 1829 · left: in reflected light · right: in transmitted light (backlit) · (Collection “S” Wuppertal) –→ Object description p. 64
Introduction 13 –→ Table of Contents Private collections also proved a valuable source of information for this research. One of the most important collections worldwide is the Blair Museum of Lithophanes (Toledo, Ohio, USA), which was established by the collector Laurel Gotshall Blair (1909–1993). From 1937 to just a few years before his death, he ran the Blair Realty and Investment Company, which was founded in 1908 by his father, Roy Blair. Laurel Blair had a deep passion for collecting various items, ranging from wax carvings and reliefs to his main interest, porcelain lithophanes. As described in one of his “Collectors’ Bulletins,” Blair purchased his first lithophane on December 27, 1961, in New York City.3 By 1963, he had already collected approximately 600 pieces. In 1965, after purchasing a complete collection of around 1,500 lithophanes from the dentist Dr. Edmund Beroud, Blair opened a museum in his own home. By the final years of his life, the collection had grown to such an extent that it had become almost impossible to manage. Several attempts were made to sell the collection, even in Germany, but no buyer was found.4 A few years after his death, the collection was donated to the City of Toledo. The Blair Museum of Lithophanes is now housed in its own building at the Toledo Botanical Garden. With few exceptions, the first porcelain factories in Europe were founded by monarchs and aristocrats as a sign of prestige. These factories were not profit oriented. Instead, their main aim was to supply the respective aristocratic family with the porcelain it required or to produce valuable gifts of state. Over time, the continuous subsidies required to run the factories overtaxed the financial resources of the founders. As a result, many of these companies were privatized early on. With the dawning emancipation of the middle class and the cessation of state subsidies, porcelain factories were forced to adapt to the needs of a broad sector of the population. In the search for profitable products, the lithophane was invented in the first third of the 19th century. However, lithophanes were very costly to produce and, in the early days, more of a luxury ware. Therefore, these new products often only played a minor, and in many cases even temporary, role in the overall business plan. Many porcelain factories did not survive the economic changes. These either halted production entirely or merged into other companies. This book describes the developmental stages of the individual factories, starting from their date of establishment. With this information, it is possible to make comparisons, recognize interrelationships, and gain new insights that can help us understand why, when, where, and how lithophanes came into existence. Detailed descriptions of individual objects are also provided, particularly in cases when historical price lists and/or production documentation are not available or when the object has a special relevance to the text. Factories whose only lithophane products were mugs or beer steins with lithophane bottoms are not covered in this book unless they played an important role in connection with other companies that produced lithophanes. The factories are listed chronologically by year of establishment, not by their economic importance or the artistic quality of their products. Each factory is covered in a separate section with a chronology of important periods and events. In these factory histories, all paragraphs with information relevant to the production of lithophanes are marked with a red square before the respective date. Most of the historical and foreign units of measurement have been converted into their metric equivalents in order to facilitate the comparison of similar objects from different companies. An object’s actual dimensions may differ from the official data owing to variations in the firing process and in the composition of the porcelain bodies used by the manufacturer at different times. Therefore, whenever possible, the objects described in this book were measured by hand, meaning through the central axis in the case of plaques; the respective measurements are always given as height by width. A decision was made not to compare historical production processes and prices with current figures. Lithophane production has experienced a revival since the second half of the 20th century. The products that have attracted interest include not only objects cast from 19th-century molds, e.g. plaques, lamps, and tea warmers from Schierholz Plaue, and plaques from Nymphenburg, but also new works from these and other factories. Fig. 3 Lithoponie Poterie de Rubelles faience plaque with ideal waterside landscape · 26.3 × 17.8 × 0.8 cm (10 3⁄8 × 7 × 5⁄16 in.) · AdT circular mark after 1845 (Collection “S” Wuppertal) –→ Object description p. 426
–→ Table of Contents 30 Introduction d) Excess material protruding above upper edge of mold is scraped off Most of the information in this section is based on interviews that were conducted with former porcelain craftsmen in the late 20th century. Some of these interviews still exist as audio material or in written form. The in-depth discussions that were recorded with Gerd Leib, former chief modeler of the Porzellanmanufactur Schierholz Plaue, and with specialists from other porcelain factories, proved to be especially informative and full of useful details. These interviews made it clear that the individual manufacturers used quite different production methods. Preparing the porcelain body The classic body used in the production of porcelain lithophanes is made from a mixture of the naturally occurring materials china clay (kaolin), feldspar, and soapstone. The first steps of the body preparation involve the elutriation of the china clay and the crushing and fine grinding of the feldspar and soapstone. The resulting mixture requires thorough cleaning. Sieves remove coarse impurities, and magnets pull out any remaining particles of iron. The final cleaning is performed by pumping the slurry, which can contain up to seventy percent water, into a filter press to remove the entrapped air and any remaining ultra-fine impurities. This process also reduces the moisture content to approx. twenty percent. The result is a plastic body with good workability. In the days when manufacturers were still producing their own mixtures, the additional “aging” played a significant role. This process of allowing the organic material in the clay to break down by storing it for a long period of time improved the plasticity of the body, making it easier to shape. The porcelain body used in the production of lithophanes can be either a dense and highly plastic clay (for hand-pressing), with a water content of 24 to 27 percent, or a slip (for pouring) with a water content of 34 to 37 percent. Before the body was used, a craftsman known as a “clay wedger” would pound the block of clay, cut it in half, slam the pieces back together, and then pound it again. This process was repeated for several hours. The resulting high density of the clay was associated with a high degree of homogeneity, which made the body especially well suited for use in the production of lithophanes. However, today’s industry requires a level of efficiency that no longer allows for such time-consuming manual labor, and the processes have since been largely simplified and automated. Many companies buy ready-made porcelain bodies on the international market that have been pre-mixed in accordance with their specifications. The bodies can then be modified by the respective factories, i.e. adapted to their special needs. Today, France (Limoges) and China are important suppliers of these raw materials. When G. F. C. Frick from KPM Berlin had the idea for the production of lithophanes, he also spent several years developing an especially wellsuited porcelain body, the Neue Berliner Lichtschirm-Masse (literally “new light-screen body from Berlin”), which was a biscuit material with an exceptionally fine-grained structure and a high degree of translucency. The biscuit porcelain body that had already been in use since the 18th century had a high percentage of feldspar and a low quartz content. It was well suited for the production of coins, medallions, figures, vessels, and other pieces, as well as for making ornamentation for cups, vases, etc., but did not satisfy the new demands. Frick was the first to successfully adapt this body for the casting of sufficiently thin pieces that would not crack during firing. According to the surviving documentation, the new recipe (arcanum) had the following composition: “930 pounds of finely washed (geschlämmte) Sennewitz kaolin (= 65.90%),64 420 pounds of finely ground and washed feldspar (= 29.76%), and most importantly 61.25 pounds of finely ground and washed soapstone (= 4.34%).”65 Although the basic recipe did not remain a secret for long, no competitor was able to match the quality of the KPM body because Frick apparently never revealed the true arcanum. The Chinese already knew about the silky sheen and translucency that could be achieved by adding soapstone (talc, steatite) to the body. Bourgoing reported having used an additional platinum bath (one gram of platinum to 20 liters of water) “to achieve a beautiful translucency.”66 In Fig. 26 a–h Lithophane production process Seltmann Weiden (Schierholz Plaue). The first photo shows wax carver Martina Zapfe 1998/99 (photo by Seltmann Weiden) a) The wax model is produced b) One-piece plaster casting molds c) The porcelain slip is poured in
Introduction 31 –→ Table of Contents e) Factory mark and plaque number stamped into rear surface f) Lampshade is touched up prior to firing g) Kiln h) Storage cabinet for wax models any case, it was important to produce a “lean porcelain body” from “fine china clay” with the highest possible percentage of kaolin and a low content of the indispensable potter’s clay. An expert would describe this as “biscuit porcelain” because it originally underwent a very slow and careful double firing process without vitrification. “Biscuit” is a French term derived from the Latin biscotum, meaning “twice baked.” The chalkwhite body features a matt to satiny or full-gloss finish and can also exhibit slight roughness and porosity. The carefully guarded recipe for the newly developed porcelain body was the main secret behind the production of top-quality lithophanes. This material made it possible to create even the most delicate designs with no flaws or defects. Today, lithophanes are produced in only one firing, during which a sintering process in the body leads to vitrification. Manufacturers in English-speaking countries preferred the marblelike, semi-transparent soft-paste porcelain Parian to the porous and slightly rough biscuit porcelain. Parian has little or no porosity and is therefore smoother than biscuit. It was also particularly well suited for porcelain figures and for use in the slip-casting process. The English manufacturer Copeland & Garrett used the following recipe: Parian mixture: 24 parts frit 36 parts china clay 40 parts feldspar Composition of the frit: 57 parts white sand 11 parts Cornish stone (similar to Chinese petuntse) 8 parts potash67 The large number of British manufacturers (of Parian) used modified body recipes. It was the iron silicate in the feldspar that gave the Parian its final coloring, which ranged from light gray to cream; the higher the iron silicate percentage, the stronger the coloring. The first factories were established near deposits of high-quality china clay. It was also of existential importance that the factory had access to forests as sources of wood for firing the kilns and to running water for use in preparing the porcelain bodies and driving the machinery for grinding and mixing. This explains why most of the porcelain factories were concentrated in a small number of appropriate regions until the mid-19th century. Since then, technology and transport networks have developed to such an extent that the classic site requirements no longer apply. Some porcelain-makers contend that, owing to the high quality of modern ready-made bodies, it is now even possible to produce good lithophanes without specially formulated mixtures. However, this claim is not entirely accurate, as can be seen by the new porcelain lithophanes of varying quality that are available on the market today. Many of these are inferior to the 19th-century products. Producing the lithophane mold An essential step in the production of optimal lithophanes is the creation of a high-precision mold. The wax technique developed by KPM Berlin begins with the hand carving of an image in wax. An even layer of hard wax, approximately four to seven millimeters in thickness, is applied to a framed glass plate. This wax is generally beeswax mixed with white lead. Sometimes, other substances are added in order to improve the plasticity and transparency: e.g., whiting (washed chalk), stearin, or oils used in painting, depending on the requirements. The modeler, or “wax carver” (German terms: Gipsschneider, Wachsschnitzer, and Wachsstecher), then uses modeling tools to carve the image—generally copied from an original work of art—in freehand into the prepared sheet of wax on the glass plate, which is positioned at an angle and backlit (in transmitted light). The tools can be made of steel, ivory, horn, or wood and are similar to dental instruments. Stencils can be used to help transfer the image onto the wax, by marking the outlines. The lightest areas require deep carving, where the remaining wax can be as thin as approx. one tenth of a milli-
60 German Manufacturers –→ Table of Contents Staatliche Porzellan-Manufaktur Meissen GmbH Meissen (Saxony)98 formerly Königliche Porcellain Fabrique 1710 to the present day The enormous number of publications with in-depth information on the Meissen Porcelain Manufactory is indicative of its widespread popularity and the important role it played in the development of European porcelain. This chapter will focus on a few key events in the company’s history.99 1701 Johann Friedrich Böttger (February 4, 1682, Schleitz – March 13, 1719, Dresden) was a trained pharmacist who had earned a reputation as an alchemist. In 1701, he attempted to produce gold during a public demonstration in Berlin. In order to escape a summons by the Prussian king, Böttger fled to Wittenberg, where he fell into the hands of “Augustus the Strong” (1670–1733), Elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus I) and King of Poland (as Augustus II). Augustus had Böttger brought to Dresden, where he was ordered to continue his experiments aimed at producing gold. Unsuccessful in his work, Böttger fled again in 1703. He was recaptured in Bohemia and then transferred in 1705 to the Albrechtsburg Castle in Meissen for temporary detention. 1707 After a laboratory had been set up in a building of the Jungfernbastei (or “Venusbastei,” a bastion of the Dresden city fortifications), Böttger was tasked with cracking the secret of Chinese porcelain with guidance and assistance from Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus (1651–1708), a physicist and mathematician who had been conducting experiments aimed at the development of porcelain. Their work was supervised by the Kammerrat (privy councilor) Michael Nehmitz. Their first results were the production of a marbled stoneware (Jaspisporzellan) and a brownish red stoneware known as Böttger stoneware (Böttgersteinzeug). 1708 According to Böttger’s laboratory notes, the men succeeded in producing the first European, white hard-paste porcelain on January 15, 1708. On March 28, 1709, he informed Augustus the Strong of their success. ■■ 1710 Königliche Porcellain Fabrique On January 23rd, the Saxon Court Chancellery under Augustus I issued a decree in four languages announcing the invention of the first European hard-paste porcelain and the founding of a porcelain manufactory in Dresden. On March 7th, a decision was taken to move the company to the Albrechtsburg Castle in Meissen for security reasons. The production facilities would remain there until 1865. The administrator was Böttger, and the first director, Michael Nehmitz. In the early years, the company’s main products included copies of Asian porcelains, figures, pieces based on designs by silversmiths, and replicas of silver coins. 1718 The Wiener Porzellanmanufaktur (1718–1864) was established in Vienna after two Meissen employees, Christoph Conrad Hunger (verified employment between 1717 and 1748) and Samuel Stöltzel (1685–1737) disclosed the arcana for the body preparation, kiln construction, and firing process. W A square in front of the date indicates that the events of this period are particularly relevant to the history of lithophane production. In this section on Meissen, the number that sometimes appears in parentheses behind the plaque number is the manufacturer’s in-house designation for the respective molder (German: Ausformer).
Staatliche Porzellan-Manufaktur Meissen GmbH 61 –→ Table of Contents 1722 On November 8th, factory inspector Johann Melchior Steinbrück proposed the use of the blue underglaze crossed Electoral Swords from the coat of arms of the Electorate of Saxony as a factory mark, initially in combination with the company’s monogram, KPM (Königliche Porzellan Manufaktur) or KPF (Königliche Porzellan Fabrik). 1766 The factory’s archives attest to the production of “a very nice biscuit body.” 1774 The politician Count Camillo Marcolini (1739–1814) became director of the manufactory (Marcolini period, until 1814). 1806 Königlich-Sächsische Porzellan-Manufaktur Meissen 1816 Hiring of the modeler Carl Gottfried Habenicht (1800–1849), who became head of the design department in 1837. 1818 Hiring of the painter Georg Friedrich Kersting (1785–1847) as head of the painting department. ■■ 1828 The production of luxury porcelain was no longer generating the anticipated profits, partly as a consequence of the Napoleonic Wars. A period of technical and artistic innovation began under Carl Wilhelm von Oppel (died 1833), who was director from 1814 to 1833, and the inspector Heinrich Gottlieb Kühn (1788–1870), who became director in 1833 and served as head of the manufactory from 1849 to 1870. In the search for profitable products, the company began using more advanced manufacturing technologies. This development meant a shift from single-piece to series production and to the mass production of porcelain tableware for everyday use. Around the middle of 1828, Meissen became the second German manufacturer, after KPM Berlin, to manufacture lithophanes (in series production). Meissen’s products were inspired by the French lithophanes that had been imported by the Dresden-based merchant Carl Friedrich Höltzel “from his trips to Paris and Lyon” and presented for the first time in a German-speaking country at the Ostermesse (Easter Fair) in Leipzig. The imported lithophanes were produced by the Parisian manufactory of Alexis Sylvain du Tremblay (1796–1868) and Paul Charles Amable de Bourgoing (1791–1864). The 1828 Ostermesse in Leipzig ran from April 27 to May 4. We can assume that Meissen made its first attempts to produce lithophanes shortly thereafter. In his article on Meissen lithophanes (“Lithophanien der Meissner Porzellanmanufaktur”),100 Joachim Kunze makes reference to a series of correspondence that provides information on the early days of lithophane production at Meissen. In a letter dated August 27, 1828, and addressed to the “Sächsische Landesoeconomie-, Manufactur und Commerziendeputation” (Saxon Deputation of State Economy, Manufacturing, and Commerce), Höltzel wrote: “The recently developed porcelain pictures known as lithophanes are protected from imitation under a brevet d’invention (patent) issued by the French government to the inventor for ten years [author’s note: should be 15 years], which is why they are being sold by the inventor at high prices.101 If I’m not mistaken, these products could be easily copied by your porcelain manufactory in Meissen with no difficulty and even sold at much lower prices, nevertheless all at a significant profit; in this case, I would provide as much as I am able to purchase from this production, and supply all models that the factory produces.” After being forwarded by the Secret Cabinet of the Saxon court, the letter was received by the director of the manufactory on October 27, 1828, with the note “whether such (lithophane porcelain pictures) could perhaps be used profitably as models for similar works by the manufactory.” Von Oppel replied on December 14, 1828, as follows: “I found these items at the last Ostermesse in Leipzig among the French porcelain wares and purchased a warming device [tea warmer/réchaud] for the manufactory. The piece was immediately put to use there as a model and produced in Meissen porcelain. Since then, on my orders, several similar products have been made from existing, relief-like molds and used for the specified purpose, and new pictures of this kind have been produced. We are able to sell the latter products at roughly the same prices as the French, and the copied pieces at somewhat lower prices.” On January 23, 1829, von Oppel sent an update: “The lithophane pictures received from the merchant Höltzel, at least the ones that were found to be usable, were also immediately put to use as models and, to date, made into light screens and profitably sold, but also at the same time purchased from the merchant Höltzel for 25 thalers 17 groschen, and the pieces that were unusable or already owned by the manufactory were returned to him. In the very beginning, we also carried out testing to determine the most appropriate level of body translucency in the production of pictures of this kind, and the standard biscuit body was found to be the most suitable. Owing to the fact that both lighting and shading must be taken into consideration, the use of more translucent bodies means that shading is reduced by the same amount as lighting is increased, and vice versa. It is just as difficult to create the correct levels of shading as it is to create the correct levels of lighting.” These statements disprove the claims made by several authors that Meissen purchased the rights from Bourgoing. The following publications included such claims: A. & Chr. Scott, “Lithophanes – A Neglected Branch of Victorian Ceramics,” p. 72: “granted rights of manufacture under licence to the Meissen factory.” H. Newman, “Lithophane Plaques,” p. 7: “De Bourgoing did in 1827 sell the lithophane technique, or granted a licence, to the Meissen factory, and plaques are extant that bear the crossed-swords mark of Meissen.” Robin Reilly, Wedgwood – The New Illustrated Dictionary, p. 263: “[T]he manufacturing rights were bought by Meissen.” The truth is that Meissen (just like Bourgoing) had sought to secure economic advantage through the unlawful appropriation of another party’s knowledge, a practice that was quite common at the time. Factories copied products from other companies and used this experience for making their own versions of the same products. Furthermore, there would have been no reason for Meissen to purchase a license because the
62 German Manufacturers –→ Table of Contents French patent had no validity in Germany. The technique that had been developed by KPM Berlin was one of the methods described in Bourgoing’s patent and was therefore accessible to any interested party under certain conditions. In addition, Meissen employed extremely competent porcelain craftsmen who would have been able to master new design techniques within a short period of time. The dissertation of B. Kovalevski reports on the production of the first lithophanes during the period up to and including November 1828: “In fact, the following items are attested to in a log book for the ‘White Corps’ department: a ‘transparent box’ with base (Mold No. S 21) in July 1828, a second in November (Mold No. S 26), and a bell-shaped lampshade (Mold No. S 28). The model for the transparent box was made by the ‘plaster etcher’ (Gipsradierer) Däbritz, the motifs for the bell-shaped lampshade (bas-relief group for the light screen) by the modeler Johann Daniel Schöne.”102 Furthermore: “The modeler […] Habenicht received an especially large number of orders for the carving of wax models for light screens. For example, in November 1828, C. G. Habenicht produced 5 translucent vessels of the numbers S 21 and 26, as well as 22 light screens with landscapes and 9 with figures, one light screen of No. 1 Johannes (John) and seven with the No. 13 Mädchen am Ziehbrunnen (Girl at Well). The repairers Karl G. Knäbig and Johann G. Schiebell [sic] produced 70 light screens with landscapes, the molder Johann G. Schröder 77 oval light screens, and the plaster etcher Christian G. Däbritz 24 model panels for light screens. The latter would have been the plaster molds required for the production of the porcelain plaques and made either from carved wax panels or from purchased models.”103 It is also worth noting that Johann Gottlieb Schiebel (born 1775), who began working as a repairer in Meissen in 1793, produced wax reliefs, including “a portrait of the king of Saxony.”104 The museum guide Schauhalle Staatliche Porzellan-Manufaktur Meissen from 1994, 3rd Edition (page 74/75), includes a “lithophane lampshade by Schiebel with an angel motif from the Sistine Madonna by Raphael, biscuit, white.” However, the year of manufacture quoted by the guide (1827) is incorrect. The correct date is 1828. In the final days of the year, the king reaffirmed his commitment to lithophane production and called for “a higher quality than the French models.”105 ■■ 1828 In the period from 1828 to 1844, the following lithophanes were produced in their first editions: 1828 Nos. 1–13 (until November)106 1830 No. 82 (until September 21st)107 1834 Nos. 111, 112 1836 Nos. 124–126, 131, 139 as well as a vase with lithophane decoration 1837 No. 140 and a bell-shaped lampshade with lithophane motifs 1838 Nos. 151–153 and a bell-shaped lithophane lampshade for lanterns 1839 Nos. 154–157, 165, 167 1840 Nos. 168 – 172 1841 Nos. 173–177, 182, 183 1842 Nos. 184 – 186, 188 1843 Nos. 189 – 191 1844 Nos. 192 – 196108 The motifs that were used for these works corresponded to contemporary tastes and, in many cases, were identical to the competitors’ motifs. However, Meissen produced very few lithophanes with portraits or with genre art showing life in aristocratic circles. The low quality of the early lithophanes suggests that the production techniques used in the early days were still relatively unsatisfactory: 1 Object: rectangular lithophane plaque, white-painted wooden stand with silver-colored metal strips Dimensions: lithophane 8.0 × 11.4 cm (3 ⅛ × 4 ½ in.), stand with adjustable height from 24.5 cm (9 ⅝ in.) Material: biscuit, white, coarse modeling, light gray-sepia tone in transmitted light, average translucency, warped plaque edges Motif: Zwei Kühe in Landschaft (Two Cows in Landscape) Markings: on back, plaque number 6 e incised upside down at top left Source: Collection “S” Wuppertal Information: Lithophane Numbers 6a to 6h are apparently copies of lithophanes from the French manufacturer AdT. → Fig. p. 63 For many years, there was confusion over the marking of Meissen’s lithophanes. Most people associate the Meissen manufactory with the crossed swords mark. However, this mark appears very rarely on lithophanes from the 19th century. The few plaques that were marked have a hidden (stylized) crossed swords mark. A general lack of knowledge about Meissen’s production of unmarked lithophanes led to the assumption that lithophanes from Meissen were extremely rare. This is not the case. The plaque numbers were incised on the back surfaces of early lithophanes and can be compared with price lists to identify plaques with certainty. However, it is important to bear in mind that KPM Berlin also used incised plaque numbers in the early days. These can resemble the Meissen marks. The fact that so many Meissen lithophanes were produced without easily identifiable factory marks is apparently associated with the fact that, for many years, the factory experienced difficulties developing an appropriate body. The body that was used until 1844, a normal biscuit made from Sosa clay,109 did not satisfy the special requirements of lithophane production. The resulting problems are evidenced by the poor quality we see in many of the first-edition lithophanes, which often have a rough surface and a reduced, cloudy translucency. Many were warped in the firing process. The body has a grayish to brownish-yellow appearance in transmitted light. This may also explain why Meissen’s painting department head Kersting, who was most likely responsible for the selection of images and their cropping, generally chose motifs that filled the entire area of the lithophane with no empty spaces or delicate designs.110 These lithophanes differed from the products made with the biscuit body from KPM Berlin, which were generally whiter, smoother, and homogeneously translucent, even in areas of the image with mini-
Staatliche Porzellan-Manufaktur Meissen GmbH 63 –→ Table of Contents mal or delicate carving. Initially, Meissen’s only option was apparently to compensate for the inferior quality of its lithophanes by selling them at lower prices. Rüdiger van Dick also deals with this topic in his article “Lithophanien der Meissner Porzellanmanufaktur”: “Was it due to the initially lower quality compared with the products from competitors? Meissen actually had a very good reputation among manufacturers with respect to the quality of its body. Could this be the reason why the company was reluctant to identify these products as its own? […] For whatever reason, Meissen seems to have deliberately refrained from using its factory mark.”111 In the same article, van Dick makes the following observations, with photos of the corresponding pieces: “Meissen had considerable difficulties in the early days of its [lithophane] production. The lithophane shown here, No. 10, Russische Post (Russian Post), has a slightly brownish-yellow tone. Another plaque, No. 139, Kinder am Weingeleite (Children at Vine Trellis), has a grayish tone; furthermore, this lithophane also still has a very coarse-grained body with a rough surface (Figs. 5 and 6). The difference in quality will be illustrated here on the basis of two examples: Figures 7 and 8 show a section of Figure 6, magnified by 1.8. The rough surface of the body can be seen very clearly in Figure 7. Figure 8 offers a very clear view of some areas of deeper relief, which are carved with sharp transitions here. For comparison, see Figures 9 and 10 (section of Fig. 11 magnified by 1.8). The surface of these pieces is significantly finer and smoother. There is also a smoother transition between areas of higher and deeper relief. The quality of the porcelain body may play an important role for experts, but a layperson who is simply viewing the lithophane image in transmitted light will be more concerned with the effect that is produced and offered. In this respect, Meissen’s products are not inferior to those of other manufacturers. The thickness of the porcelain also varies greatly. There are considerable differences here. However, Meissen began solving its quality problems in 1847.”112 Two types of backside numbering are known: the hand-incised number and the bold, impressed number (hollow number, outline). The latter type appeared as solitary numbers of up to six millimeters in height and was used only by Meissen, although not prior to 1834. After 1876, the manufactory of Schierholz Plaue (Thuringia, Germany) also began using bold, impressed numbers on its larger plaques, but then always in combination with a factory mark (PPM or sickle mark). On the Meissen plaques, an additional small, incised or impressed number identifies the molder. Sometimes, the plaque number marked on the back of the lithophane was also added to the front lower edge as an incised mark. The uppercase letters K and KK that can also sometimes be found on the front lower edge as impressed marks (blind-stamped) have yet to be identified. These marks may be associated with special orders from certain clients. In his article “Lithophanien der Meissner Porzellanmanufaktur,” R. van Dick makes reference to other unusual markings. The plaque Sr. Maj. König von Preußen, klein (His Majesty King of Prussia, small) has an incised number 30 on the back with an incised letter H in front of it and an incised letter M behind it. Van Dick theorizes that these letters were the mark used by the head of the design department, Carl Gottfried Habenicht (H for Habenicht, M for modelleur).113 Monograms from other artists and craftsmen have also been identified, such as SJ for the wax carver Johann Gottlieb Schiebel. ■■ 1828/29 2 Object: round lithophane plaque Dimensions: diameter 18.6 cm (7 5⁄16 in.) Material: biscuit, white, body slightly rough and granular Motif: Johannes, rund, groß (John, round, large) Markings: none (Meissen No. 16) Source: Collection “S” Wuppertal Information: some of the early lithophanes have no markings whatsoever → Fig. p. 64 1 Lithophane stand · height adjustable from 24.5 cm (9 5⁄8 in.) · lithophane Meissen 6e Zwei Kühe in Landschaft (Two Cows in Landscape) · 8.0 × 11.4 cm (3 1⁄8 × 4 ½ in.) · FE 1828 (Collection “S” Wuppertal)
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